Abstract The mosque is a building type with a deep historical and architectural legacy, offering vast potential for symbolic and expressive design. Grounded in centuries of evolving traditions, cultural exchanges, and the movement of ideas, it remains a dynamic space for the exploration of concepts where architects seek to embody the sacred essence of Islamic culture and religion. While many modern mosques strive to convey spiritual and cultural meanings through their design, they often navigate the persistent challenge of balancing modern expressions with the adaptation of historical architectural styles, elements, and motifs to fit contemporary contexts. To address this, mosque architects often turn to past forms as a way of mediating between tradition and modernity. However, these references can sometimes be applied superficially, either within a revivalist framework or as ornamental additions to a more modern design. Consequently, contemporary mosque architecture often emerges as a form of modern architectural eclecticism, reflecting both the creative potential of merging historical and contemporary forms and the critical challenges related to contextual relevance, cultural appropriation, environmental sustainability, and the authenticity of these architectural expressions. The discussions around contemporary eclecticism in mosque architecture resonate with those directed at 19th-century European eclecticism, a movement that also sought to integrate historical elements from various cultures with local architectural vocabularies. Despite being largely dismissed by 20th-century modernist critics for its perceived lack of coherence, authenticity, and contextual sensitivity, eclecticism continues to reappear in modern architecture. Today, it is shaped by more nuanced engagements with history and the complex relationship between globalization and regional identity. Within this evolving landscape, mosque architecture has repeatedly intersected with eclecticism, a relationship that demands renewed attention today as we enter a new phase marked by the emergence of AI image generators like Midjourney and DALL·E. These tools offer unprecedented eclectic creative freedom, capable of emulating, hybridizing, and fusing stylistic references from across time and geography. As such, they introduce both opportunities and challenges for mosque architecture, particularly in negotiating the enduring tension between innovation and historical continuity. Against this backdrop, this paper explores the evolving relationship between mosque architecture and eclecticism, identifying contemporary manifestations of this resurgence and concluding with speculative reflections on the role AI-generated imagery might play in shaping a new era of architectural eclecticism. Keywords: Eclectic architecture, Modern Eclecticism, Mosque Architecture, AI-image generation   Resurgence of Eclecticism in Contemporary Mosque Design Yasser Megahed Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK MegahedY@Cardiff.ac.uk Introduction: Contemporary Mosque Architecture–A Continuing Dilemma Between Modernity and Historicism The mosque is a complex and richly layered building typology that carries a profound historical and architectural legacy, offering immense potential for symbolic and expressive design. Rooted in centuries of evolved tradition, the migration of ideas, and cross-cultural exchange, it continues to serve as fertile ground for the exploration of design ideologies, where architects strive to embody the sacred essence of Islamic culture and religion. Yet, while many examples of contemporary mosque architecture reflect a sincere effort to translate spiritual and cultural meanings into built form, they often grapple with the persistent tension between modern expressions and the adaptation of their historical legacy to contemporary settings. In response, mosque architects have frequently turned to the incorporation of past forms as a strategy of architectural mediation. However, these references are at times applied in a superficial manner, whether within a revivalist framework or as symbolic or ornamental gestures layered onto modern forms. As such, contemporary mosque architecture frequently emerges as a modern form of architectural eclecticism. It reflects both the creative potential of fusing historical and contemporary forms, and also the critical challenges related to contextual relevance, cultural appropriation, environmental responsiveness, and the authenticity of such architectural expressions. Notably, these potentials and critiques resonate with those directed at 19th-century European eclecticism, a movement that similarly sought to blend historical elements from various cultures with local architectural languages to produce bold and often imaginative architectural syntheses. Mosque Architecture and Eclecticism Architectural Eclecticism – A Brief Introduction While the concept was largely rejected with the rise of modernism in the 20th-century, architectural eclecticism represented a significant period of cross-cultural exchange and the fusion of architectural ideas. This movement, which emerged in Europe and North America from the mid-19th-century to the early 20th-century, reflected a unique phase of architectural development. Eclecticism involved the blending of diverse architectural elements from a wide array of historical styles and cultural traditions, producing distinctive yet harmonious syntheses (Karsono et al., 2021). Architects of this period sought to move beyond the constraints of strict historicism by consciously borrowing and combining various historical and cultural styles, embracing a broader range of multicultural influences to create new and innovative forms. This movement was fuelled by a growing public interest in antiquity and archaeology, alongside increased travel and the spread of media, which made the art, architecture, and cultures of distant regions increasingly accessible and intellectually stimulating to the educated classes (He, 2021, p. 1149). Although architectural eclecticism became especially prominent in the second half of the 19th-century, its conceptual origins can be traced back to a shift in artistic and intellectual thought around the early 1800s (Collins, 1998, p. 117; Neville, 2021). The term "eclecticism" was first popularized in France in the 1830s, when philosopher Victor Cousin used it to describe a system of thought that combined ideas from various philosophical schools (Collins, 1998, p. 118). This concept draws from the Greek term eklektikos, meaning "to choose the best" (Joseph and Lovejoy, 2018, p. 15). Supporters of eclecticism celebrated its openness, emphasizing its ability to transcend rigid adherence to a single tradition and to foster creative synthesis (Neville, 2021, p. 152). Eclecticism gradually spread to architecture in Europe and the United States. It emerged as a design approach that reflected and responded to the development of Western philosophy and the growing prominence of "style" in architectural discourse, particularly in Britain and the Western world. Thomas Hope's An Historical Essay on Architecture (1835) may be the first to specifically address eclectic architectural theory, where he critiques the diverse range of styles prevalent in England. A decade later, The Builder echoed this concern, lamenting the unsatisfactory state of architecture and the increasing tendency to design buildings that appeared to belong to different historical periods (Neville, 2021, p. 159). Notable examples of eclectic architecture from this period include Portugal’s Pena Palace, which blends Gothic, Renaissance, and Moorish styles, and the Brighton Pavilion in England, known for its fusion of Indian Mughal and Chinese influences. In London, the St. Pancras Renaissance Hotel showcases a mix of Gothic Revival and Renaissance elements, while Paris’s Petit Palais combines Beaux-Arts principles with Classical, Baroque, and Art Nouveau styles. Across the Atlantic, New York City’s Dakota Apartments and the Woolworth Building exemplify the eclectic merging of European styles such as Gothic and Renaissance with Beaux-Arts influences (Fig. 1). Fig. 1. Right: St. Pancras Renaissance Hotel, London (Gothic Revival and Renaissance), image by Smuconlaw (CC BY-SA 4.0); Left: New York City Woolworth Building (merging Gothic and Renaissance with Beaux-Arts influences), Image by Norbert Nagel (Wikipedia Commons); Bottom: Brighton Pavilion (Indian Mughal and Chinese), Image by flamenc (CC BY-SA 3.0). Although these examples vary significantly, they all share a unified vision based on historical precedents and the meticulous application of traditional design principles. The architects behind these structures regarded themselves as successors to a global architectural tradition, participating in a movement that sought to restore architectural literacy (Sheppard, 2006, p. 2). In this context, eclecticism was not an attempt to create something entirely new, but rather a natural result of an era dominated by historicism. As the French architect, publisher, and writer César Daly (1811–1894) explained, Western eclecticism was a progressive theory, sifting through a vast range of historical styles to discover a "future evolutive style" (He, 2021, p. 1150). Eclecticism relied on the selective integration of elements from diverse historical, cultural, and stylistic sources, resulting in a unique aesthetic. It stemmed from a philosophical approach to history, understanding that truths found in different historical periods could be extracted from their often-conflicting contexts and reassembled into a cohesive system of thought (Collins, 1998, p. 118). The Historical Evolution of Mosque Architecture and the Question of Architectural Styles The 19th-century concept of eclecticism, however, was not a natural evolution in the development of historic mosque architecture. Mosque architecture has a long history of the exchange of ideas across borders, driven by cultural interactions, travel, trade, and conquests. As Islam spread across different regions, it encountered various architectural traditions, which were reinterpreted and integrated with Islamic religious, cultural, and aesthetic values. Instead of imposing a singular style, Muslims architecture absorbed local forms and adapted them to express the Islamic worldview. These interactions were not confined to the Muslim world; they also influenced European architecture, reflecting a two-way exchange of ideas. This process was not merely stylistic but was deeply connected to the spiritual, functional, and social needs of Islamic societies. The sacred nature of religion and its central role in daily life provided unity and coherence, guiding architectural design without rigid adherence to a specific style or movement (Elaraby, 1996, p.138; Gabr, 1992, p. 21). Around those principles, mosque architecture developed through a balance of continuity and adaptation, creating a shared architectural language that reflected the interconnectedness of the Islamic world and its ongoing dialogue with other cultures (Elaraby, 1996, p.138; Gabr, 1992, p. 21). In contrast, eclecticism developed in Europe and America as a design approach that both reflected and responded to the evolution of Western philosophical thought and the concept of "style" which gained prominence in the 19th-century through Austrian art historian Alois Riegl. This idea later became a central focus of architectural discourse in Britain and the Western world. As Ignasi de Sola-Morales has suggested, eclecticism emerged as a natural progression in the stylistic development of Western architecture, particularly during the colonial period, when new sources of inspiration and creativity invigorated the previously rigid and insular European architectural tradition (He, 2021, p. 1149). The Introduction of Eclecticism to Mosque Architecture During the Colonial Period The colonial expansion of Western powers during the 19th-century played a critical role in introducing eclectic architectural practices to Muslim regions, profoundly disrupting the longstanding balance of continuity and adaptation that had shaped their built environment (Cheng & Neisch, 2023). Under colonial rule, Muslim societies underwent deep cultural transformations, which challenged regional architectural traditions and interrupted the cumulative evolution that had previously integrated Islamic values, cultural identity, and architectural expression. This period of upheaval led to the fragmentation of the traditional value systems and societal norms that had historically unified Islamic architectural practices. Coinciding with this colonial influence was the emergence of the term "Islamic architecture" in the late 19th-century (Rabbat, 2014, p. 38). Before this classification was introduced, the architecture of Muslim lands was understood as a natural expression of its local context, shaped by historical experience, aesthetic sensibilities, and environmental conditions, without being confined to a rigid stylistic label. However, as Nasser Rabbat explains, when European architects and draftsmen arrived in the "Orient" following early military incursions, they encountered an unfamiliar architectural language that resisted categorization through the lens of Classical European traditions. To interpret and label what they saw, they coined the term "Islamic architecture," a designation laden with stylistic implications and framed by a distinctly Eurocentric perspective (Rabbat, 2014, p. 38). This colonial redefinition of architectural identity had lasting consequences, influencing not only how Muslim architecture was perceived but also how it was represented and reimagined. As Western fascination with the "Orient" intensified, so did the desire to appropriate its visual language into emerging architectural trends. Within this context, eclecticism began to intersect with mosque design, introducing new modes of cross-cultural exchange and stylistic hybridization that reshaped the trajectory of mosque architecture under colonial modernity. The Manifestation of Eclecticism in Mosque Architecture The integration of so-called “Islamic architecture” into modern architectural discourse occurred primarily through the lens of eclectic revivalism, a strategy that enabled European stylistic frameworks to intersect with the architectural heritage of Muslim societies via hybrid design languages. During the late 19th- and early 20th-centuries, under British and French colonial mandates, many regions within the Islamic world experienced a surge in revivalist architecture. European architects active in major Muslim cities engaged in stylistic experimentation, drawing from a broad spectrum of Islamic architectural histories and blending them with Western design principles (Rabbat, 2014, p. 39). Simultaneously, local architects adopted similar eclectic strategies, seeking to forge new national identities by synthesizing indigenous forms with dominant Western paradigms (Rabbat, 2014, p. 39). These revivalist movements often merged 18th-and 19th-century European Neoclassicism with regional architectural traditions, resulting in stylistic hybrids that aimed to reconcile cultural authenticity with modernity. This period witnessed the emergence of eclectic styles such as Neo-Seljuq and Neo-Ottoman in Turkey, and Neo-Fatimid and Neo-Mamluk styles in Egypt (Grigor, 2020, p. 875). In Turkey, these eclectic trends were largely shaped by the broader intellectual and architectural agenda known as the “First National Architectural Movement” or the “National Architectural Renaissance,” which defined the country’s architectural identity from the early 20th-century until the 1930s. This movement sought to reinterpret and reintegrate Ottoman and Seljuk architectural vocabularies within the framework of modern construction techniques and institutional architecture. Many of its leading architects were trained at the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris, and their work reflected a fusion of Ottoman elements, such as domes, pointed arches, and glazed tilework, with French Neoclassical principles like axial symmetry and compositional balance. These traditional design motifs were further adapted to modern technologies, including reinforced concrete and iron trusses (Fig. 2) (Esen & Urfalıoğlu, 2024). Despite this architectural evolution, however, mosque design in Turkey remained relatively conservative. Religious commissions continued to rely heavily on canonical Ottoman forms, particularly the typology of the domed cube with a portico or iterations of the Sultan Ahmed Mosque (1609 – 1616), itself inspired by Sinan’s Şehzade Mosque (1544 – 1548). These designs reflected a preference for formal continuity and nostalgic references, privileging symbolic familiarity over architectural innovation (Serageldin, 1996). Fig. 2. Left: The Ziraat Bankası General Headquarters Building in Ankara, an example of First national architectural movement. Image by; Right: In parallel, Egypt underwent a comparable transformation under colonial rule and the rise of nationalism. Here, eclecticism emerged as a deliberate architectural strategy to reconcile Islamic heritage with Western models of modernization. This form of layered eclecticism enabled Egyptian architects to articulate a distinctive national identity that embraced tradition without rejecting technological and structural advancements. The approach was especially visible in civic buildings that retained Islamic ornamental language, domes, mashrabiyas, and arabesques, while adopting Western planning methods, materials, and construction technologies. This stylistic hybridity was driven in large part by Egyptian architects trained in Europe, particularly in France and Italy, who were deeply influenced by European historicist revivalism, itself a product of the search for cultural origins during moments of identity crisis. In this context, Egyptian architects appropriated local architectural symbols, such as Fatimid domes, Mamluk minarets, and ‘Islamic’ geometric ornamentation, and applied them to modern building programs rooted in European rationalism (Ashour, 2017). The Egyptian state played a significant role in institutionalizing this eclectic approach, especially in public architecture. A semi-official urban planning directive encouraged a dual stylistic identity in Cairo: Arab-Islamic forms were promoted in the northern districts, while Pharaonic aesthetics were emphasized in the south. Though not strictly enforced, this policy underscored the government’s endorsement of architectural eclecticism as a vehicle for cultural nationalism. This movement was further bolstered by scholarly initiatives to document and preserve Islamic architectural heritage. The work of K.A.C. Creswell and his students was instrumental in constructing a visual and textual canon of Islamic monuments, offering architects a well-defined repertoire of forms and motifs for reinterpretation. Among the most influential figures advancing this eclectic paradigm was Mustafa Fahmy Pasha, who, along with his father Mahmoud Fahmy and Italian Egyptian architect Antoine Lasciac, played an active role in the Comité de Conservation des Monuments de l’Art Arabe. Their preservation efforts significantly informed their design philosophies. Mustafa Fahmy, in particular, coined the term “Islamic Renaissance” architecture to describe his approach, an intentional fusion of Islamic design elements with European formal principles. His projects emphasized the unity of geometric proportion, incorporating classical arches, Renaissance symmetry, and Mediterranean balconies alongside Islamic spatial compositions and decorative vocabularies, particularly those derived from the Fatimid and Mamluk traditions (Ashour, 2017). However, it was European architects who initially applied this new Islamic architectural language to mosque design. Many experimented with combining historical Islamic motifs from various eras with Western formal vocabularies, creating hybrid structures that captured the political and cultural tensions of the period (Rabbat, 2014, p. 39). A notable example is the work of Italian architect Mario Rossi, active in Egypt during the early to mid-20th-century. Rossi played a central role in shaping modern mosque architecture in Egypt, merging traditional Islamic aesthetics with universal design principles and European formal order. As chief architect for the Ministry of Religious Endowments (Awqaf), he designed and restored numerous mosques that reflect deep sensitivity to historical Islamic styles, particularly those of the Fatimid, Mamluk, and Ottoman traditions, while integrating contemporary construction methods. One of his most celebrated works, the Al-Mursi Abu Al-Abbas Mosque in Alexandria (completed in the late 1940s), features a striking white façade, ornate domes, and a soaring minaret, making it one of the city’s architectural landmarks. The mosque draws from Mamluk precedents in its arches, fenestration, and decoration, and from Ottoman typologies in its octagonal plan, a design strategy reminiscent of Sinan’s domed mosques, which spanned octagonal bases. Rossi’s creative, historically informed eclecticism continues to influence mosque architecture in Egypt and beyond, visible in later examples in Cairo such as the Al-Nour Mosque (1970s) and Al-Fath Mosque (1990s) (Fig. 3). Fig. 3. Left: Al-Mursi Abu Al-Abbas Mosque in Alexandria by the Italian architect Mario Rossi (completed in the late 1940s) showing a fusion between ottoman and Mamluk features. Image by Alberto-g-rovi (CC BY-SA 3.0). Middle: Al-Nour Mosque, Cairo, (built in the 1970s), photo by Mo7amedsalim (CC BY-SA 3.0). Right: Al-Fath Mosque, Cairo (built in the 1990s), photo by Sara Nabih (CC BY-SA 4.0). Both mosques show how Rossi’s creative, historically informed eclecticism continues to influence contemporary mosque architecture in Egypt. This legacy of eclectic mosque architecture extended beyond the Arab world and found new expressions in other colonized Muslim regions, where local traditions were similarly reconfigured through a combination of imported stylistic vocabularies and indigenous cultural references. A particularly distinctive example of this phenomenon emerged in colonial Malaysia during the 19th-century, notably in the evolving architectural history of the Bandaraya Kuching Mosque. Originally constructed in 1840 as a modest timber structure on stilts, the mosque featured a tiered, pyramid-shaped roof that reflected vernacular Southeast Asian architectural influences. This design echoed the formal language of significant regional precedents such as the 15th-century Great Mosque of Demak in Java and the Kampung Laut Mosque in Malaysia, both emblematic of early mosque typologies rooted in local materials and cultural practices. However, the mosque underwent substantial transformation over time. In a pivotal 1929 renovation, its pyramid roof was augmented with a Mamluk-style dome, reminiscent of architectural elements from the Complex of Sultan Al-Ashraf Qaytbay in Cairo (1470–1474 CE). This unusual juxtaposition of a pyramidal roof with an Egyptian dome introduced a novel and unfamiliar architectural vocabulary to the local context, suggesting a deliberate attempt to forge a new symbolic and aesthetic language (Karsono et al., 2021, p. 2). Although historical records do not provide a definitive rationale for the choice of this specific dome type, its inclusion may be interpreted within the broader context of increased maritime mobility and European exploration across Southern and Southeast Asia during the colonial period, which facilitated new channels of cross-cultural architectural exchange. In 1967, the original mosque was demolished due to its inability to accommodate the expanding Muslim population of Kuching. The following year, a new mosque was constructed to mark Sarawak’s incorporation into the Malaysian federation. This new iteration further expanded the building’s eclectic lineage by adopting stylistic elements from North Indian Mughal architecture (1494–1707 CE), thereby adding another layer of historical and geographical hybridity to its architectural narrative (Karsono et al., 2021, p. 5). The Bandaraya Kuching Mosque thus serves as a compelling example of how eclecticism in mosque architecture responded not only to colonial influence and global exchange but also to evolving national and communal identities in the post-colonial era (Fig. 4, 5, 6). Fig. 4. Left: Kampung Laut Mosque, Malaysia, 18th-century (image by Asrol Affandi, CC BY-SA 2.0). Right: A sketch drawing showing the original construction of the Bandaraya Kuching mosque in Malaysia featuring a pyramid-shaped roof that drew inspiration from regional cultural references (sketch by the author based on (Karsono et al., 2021)). Fig. 5. Right, A significant renovation to the Bandaraya Kuching mosque took place in 1929 in which the pyramid's upper tier was replaced with an Egyptian Mamluk-style dome (A sketch drawing by the author based on (Karsono et al., 2021)). The dome is reminiscent of the Complex of Sultan al-Ashraf Qaytbay in Cairo (constructed 1470–1474 CE) (middle and left images by Robert Prazeres, CC BY-SA 3.0). Fig. 6. The original structure of Bandaraya Kuching mosque was demolished in 1967 and replaced by a new mosque design featuring distinct Mughal architecture of North India, Image by Wee Hong (CC BY-SA 4.0). Another illustrative example of eclectic mosque architecture can be found in the Baiturrahman Grand Mosque, located in Banda Aceh City, Indonesia. Constructed between 1879 and 1881, the mosque exemplifies the stylistic hybridity that characterized colonial-era architectural endeavors in Southeast Asia. Its design synthesizes elements from the Indies Empire Style, a neoclassical European idiom adapted to the tropical climate of the Dutch East Indies, with architectural motifs drawn from the Indian Mughal tradition. The building’s symmetry and monumental onion-shaped domes evoke the spatial and visual language of Mughal architecture, particularly as seen in canonical works like the Taj Mahal (Maulida, 2020, p. 4). The mosque also incorporates Moorish elements, drawing inspiration from iconic Islamic landmarks such as the Alhambra in Granada and the Great Mosque of Córdoba. These motifs appear in the form of horseshoe arches, intricate arabesques, and geometric patterns. Further enriching this stylistic blend, the mosque’s architect, Gerrit Bruins, is believed to have integrated Egyptian influences into the design, particularly in the floral detailing of the façade, which bears resemblance to the 12th-century Mosque of Al-Salih Tala'i in Cairo (Maulida, 2020, p. 6; Raap, 1994, p. 8). Notably absent, however, are local Acehnese ornamental forms, suggesting a deliberate departure from regional architectural traditions in favour of an international eclecticism rooted in colonial and orientalist aesthetic frameworks. The Baiturrahman Grand Mosque thus stands as a salient example of how diverse global references were strategically mobilized to produce a monumental symbol of both imperial presence and cultural continuity (Fig. 7). Fig. 7. Baiturrahman Mosque by architect G. Bruins, 1881. Source: By Collectie Wereldmuseum (v/h Tropenmuseum), part of the National Museum of World Cultures, CC BY-SA 3.0) In sum, the widespread adoption of eclectic revivalism in mosque architecture across the Islamic world emerged as a multifaceted response to the converging forces of colonial domination, national identity formation, and the imperative of modernization. From the Ottoman revivalist efforts in Turkey to the hybrid forms in Egypt, Malaysia, and Indonesia, architects and patrons engaged in a selective appropriation of historical architectural languages. These were combined with contemporary materials and structural innovations to produce new, visually striking expressions of Islamic identity. Yet, despite their symbolic aspirations and aesthetic richness, these eclectic forms often produced unintended consequences. The reliance on European stylistic taxonomies and the tendency to amalgamate disparate historical references, sometimes divorced from their original cultural and functional contexts, contributed to a sense of architectural dislocation. As Nasser Rabbat observes, these revivalist designs, although intended as sincere expressions of national and religious identity, frequently failed to establish continuity with the architectural heritage they referenced, ultimately reinforcing rather than bridging the historical rupture introduced by colonialism (Rabbat, 2014, p. 39). Post-modernism, Radical Eclecticism and the Mosque As eclectic architectural styles waned with the rise of modernism in Europe and America, the pursuit of identity through eclectic revivalism also proved to be a transient phase in many post-independence Muslim countries. Modernism quickly became the dominant architectural expression, symbolizing the aspirations for cultural and technological progress in these newly independent nations (Cheng & Neisch, 2023; Gabr, 1992, p. 15). However, the adoption of modernist architectural ideals, along with the principles of rational planning, disrupted traditional socio-cultural values and symbolic practices, leading to a new crisis of identity in Islamic architecture, particularly in mosque design. The introduction of modernist ideals further fragmented the cultural systems that had been briefly re-established through the nationalist eclectic revivalism in the early 20th-century (Gabr, 1992, p. 15). Nonetheless, it was not until the late 20th-century, with the rise of postmodernism, that eclecticism found renewed interest within global architectural discourse. Postmodernism emerged as a response to the crisis of symbolic expression in architecture, a crisis exacerbated by the dogmatic nature of modernism and the homogenizing forces of globalization. Postmodernism sought to reconnect architecture with local traditions, emphasizing cultural specificity and semantic depth (He, 2021, p. 1146). In his seminal work The Language of Post-modern Architecture, architect and theorist Charles Jencks argued that architecture should be a reflection of the full spectrum of a society's values, beliefs, and institutions. He contended that the globalized, pluralistic context of architecture had been diluted by modernism's rigid formalism (He, 2021, p. 1155). Jencks described postmodern architecture as a form of “Radical Eclecticism” viewing it as both a continuation and evolution of the eclectic approach of the 19th-century. It created a new space for architectural fusion, combining diverse elements in novel ways while acknowledging the specific cultural contexts from which these elements originated (Cheng & Neisch, 2023, p. 1128; Jencks, 1984; Steen, 2015, p. 135). Jencks distinguished "positive eclecticism" from "bare eclecticism," emphasizing that the former was rooted in meaning, while the latter represented a mere amalgamation of styles without purpose. He argued that the postmodern approach to style was relativistic, adaptable, and culturally specific, adhering to the principles of plenitude and pluralism, recognizing that people seek variety in experience and that history offers a rich tapestry of values from which to draw (Jencks, 1980; Steen, 2015, p. 135). Postmodernism thus addressed the challenge of balancing authenticity with continuity by selectively revisiting revered historical models, bypassing the need for mere stylistic reinterpretation. This approach ranged from a mix of historicism and historical revivalism to regionalized modernism or "modernized regionalism," a concept promoted by Kenneth Frampton’s critical regionalism. This approach resonated strongly in Muslim regions, where there was a powerful desire to reconnect with a visual and cultural identity rooted in the past. However, while radical eclecticism sought to create complex architectural forms that defied easy categorization through nuanced syntheses of contradictions, the application of postmodernism in mosque architecture often resulted in a justification for stylistic eclecticism and revivalism (Rabbat, 2014, p. 40). This approach reflected what Kenneth Frampton warned of: the risk of degenerating radical eclecticism into a form of consumerist iconography disguised as cultural expression, where the visual appeal of eclectic designs overshadowed deeper cultural significance (Frampton, 1983). This tendency persisted beyond the decline of postmodernism and continues to manifest in contemporary mosque architecture. Figure 8 presents examples of such mosques, illustrating the ongoing tension between the modern architectural expression of the present and the reinterpretation of the architectural legacies of the past. Fig. 8. Examples of stylistic fusion in contemporary mosque architecture showing elements and motifs from other historical references including Mamluk, Ottoman, Andalusian, Persian and Indian mosque architecture: from the top left: Hazrat Sultan Mosque, Azerbaijan (featuring Persian domes and Egyptian minarets); Ahmad Shah State Mosque Malaysia (merging Ottoman pencil minarets in Malaysian domes); Egypt Grand Mosque (bringing Andalusian and Indian features); Jalil Khayat Mosque in Iraq (featuring eclectic fusion of Ottoman and Mamluk minarets and Ottoman and Persian domes); Kota Kinabalu City Mosque, Malasia (featuring an Egyptian Mamluk dome); Aisha Al-Rajhi Mosque, Saudi Arabia (with out of scale Mamluk minarets); Zabeel Grand Mosque, UAE (Mamluk minarets and domes with Andalusian portico); Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque, UAE (Indian, Moorish, Mamluk fusion). Mosques of Migrant Muslim Communities in Non-Muslim Regions A distinct form of modern eclecticism also emerged in mosques built by migrant Muslim communities in non-Muslim regions, where the architecture often represented a simplified form of cross-culturalism. These mosques, while rooted in Islamic tradition, displayed an eclectic approach marked by the borrowing of various architectural elements from different mosque styles across the Muslim world (Shadid & van Koningsveld, 2002). Unlike the deeper, more nuanced integrations of history and culture seen in traditional Islamic architecture, the design of these mosques frequently relied on the incorporation of recognizable features, such as domes, minarets, arches, and ornamental motifs, drawn from various regional mosque traditions. These elements were often combined without regard for their original cultural or architectural contexts. In this form of eclecticism, the primary goal was not necessarily a cohesive architectural expression but rather the immediate visual recognition of Islamic identity (Roose, 2009, p. 10, 12). While this simplified cross-culturalism, might effectively establish a visible presence for the Muslim community, it also prompts questions about authenticity, cultural representation, and the risk of misinterpreting architectural heritage. Fig. 9. Examples of mosques of migrant Muslim communities in non-Muslim regions. Left: Islamic Center of Washington, photo by SimonP (CC BY 3.0); middle: Western Mosque (Ayasofya Mosque), Amsterdam, photo by FaceMePLS (CC BY 2.0); right: Masjid Umar, Leicester, UK, photo by NotFromUtrecht (CC BY 3.0). Conclusion: Eclecticism in Mosque Architecture, Negative and Positive Possibilities Although often framed as a Western architectural phenomenon, eclecticism has become an integral part of mosque architecture, particularly in the modern and postmodern eras. Historically, mosques were never isolated from cross-cultural influence; their evolution was shaped by centuries of exchange, migration, and adaptation. Yet, the disruptions brought about by European colonial intervention from the 18th-century onward destabilized long-standing architectural traditions and value systems in Muslim societies. In this fractured landscape, eclecticism found fertile ground. As nationalism, postmodernism, and globalization redefined cultural production across the Muslim world, eclectic design approaches became more prominent in mosque architecture. These styles often emerged in the form of revivalism or radical historicism, legitimized as attempts to reconnect contemporary architecture with an Islamic past. As Nasser Rabbat observes, in the absence of a unified architectural doctrine for Islamic societies, designers frequently turned to historical motifs as a form of reconciliation, seeking to visually anchor the modern mosque within a broader cultural lineage. However, these references were often employed as surface ornamentation rather than deeply integrated architectural strategies, raising longstanding concerns about authenticity, contextual relevance, and appropriation, issues that once plagued European eclecticism in the 19th-century (Rabbat, 2012, p. 9). Despite these challenges, the architectural heritage of the mosque offers a remarkably rich and diverse vocabulary, enabling eclecticism to serve not merely as replication but as a tool for creative reinterpretation. When practiced with critical awareness and cultural sensitivity, eclecticism can support innovative mosque designs that are both locally meaningful and globally resonant. This form of “positive eclecticism” involves a deliberate, context-specific synthesis of diverse styles, one that values semantic depth and symbolic clarity over superficial pastiche. Conversely, eclecticism can also fall into a “negative” mode, marked by incoherent juxtapositions of architectural elements divorced from their original cultural and functional contexts. Such designs risk reducing the mosque to a collage of borrowed symbols, undermining both aesthetic integrity and cultural representation. Mosque Architecture and AI-Facilitated Eclecticism As mosque architecture continues to navigate the complex terrain between tradition and innovation, a new chapter is unfolding, one marked by the growing influence of artificial intelligence in architectural design. At the forefront of this transformation are AI-powered image generation tools such as Midjourney and DALL·E, which are ushering in a novel form of eclecticism. These generative systems possess the capacity to analyse, imitate, and recombine stylistic elements from a vast array of architectural traditions, enabling designers to explore unprecedented hybridizations of form, ornamentation, and spatial logic. For mosque architecture, this technological development presents both a significant opportunity, but also a profound challenge to harness the eclectic possibilities offered by AI in ways that meaningfully engage with the discipline’s historical legacy and spiritual purpose. The capabilities of generative AI reflect a broader truth about creativity itself, namely, that imitation and synthesis are essential to all forms of artistic expression. As human creators, we are constantly drawing from our accumulated cultural memory. Everything we build is shaped by what we have seen, heard, read, or felt before. Generative AI mirrors this cognitive process, offering a computational parallel to the human instinct for referencing, recombining, and reinterpreting. As such, these tools do not so much invent as they facilitate, providing architects with visualizations that draw from extensive data sets of architectural history and contemporary trends. But the crucial question remains: how will mosque architects choose to engage with these precedents? The application of AI in mosque design has the potential to embody “positive eclecticism”, a deliberate, contextually aware synthesis of styles and ideas guided by critical interpretation rather than superficial reproduction (He, 2021). By crafting complex textual prompts that invoke specific historical motifs, regional influences, spatial typologies, or symbolic references, mosque architects can use AI tools to generate conceptually rich design iterations. In doing so, mosque architecture can be reimagined in ways that are both forward-looking and rooted in cultural memory, pushing beyond replication toward innovation. Yet, the same technology can easily produce the opposite: a form of “negative eclecticism” characterized by incoherence, aesthetic opportunism, and the hollow manipulation of historical references. Without a strong conceptual framework and cultural literacy, AI-generated designs risk devolving into fragmented pastiches, images that mimic the visual language of mosques without understanding their religious, functional, or environmental contexts. This echoes Reinhold Martin’s critique in Utopia’s Ghost (2010), where he warns that postmodern architectural pluralism often led to gestures that are episodic and non-committal, designs that appear rich in symbolism yet ultimately lack meaning or coherence. When employed without discernment, AI may facilitate this kind of superficial eclecticism, one that is seductive in appearance but hollow in substance. To truly embody a productive form of eclecticism, mosque architecture in the age of AI must be guided by critical intention. Designers must ask not only what they are borrowing, but why, and how those elements can be adapted meaningfully for contemporary spiritual, social, and environmental realities. In this way, generative AI becomes more than an eclecticism design tool; it becomes a medium through which mosque architecture can continue its centuries-long dialogue between past and present, continuity and change. Fig. 10: Basic Workflow for Midjourney with “Mosque Façade” prompt by Zakariya, et al. (2023), Image Courtesy of Afif Zakariya.